<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="no"?>
<!DOCTYPE article SYSTEM "http://www.the-cryosphere-discuss.net/inc/tcd/copernicus.dtd">
<article language="en">
	<journal>
		<journal_title>The Cryosphere Discussions</journal_title>
		<journal_url>www.the-cryosphere-discuss.net</journal_url>
		<issn>1994-0432</issn>
		<eissn>1994-0440</eissn>
		<volume_number>3</volume_number>
		<issue_number>3</issue_number>
		<publication_year>2009</publication_year>
	</journal>
	<doi>10.5194/tcd-3-919-2009</doi>
	<article_url>http://www.the-cryosphere-discuss.net/3/919/2009/</article_url>
	<abstract_html>http://www.the-cryosphere-discuss.net/3/919/2009/tcd-3-919-2009.html</abstract_html>
	<fulltext_pdf>http://www.the-cryosphere-discuss.net/3/919/2009/tcd-3-919-2009.pdf</fulltext_pdf>
	<start_page>919</start_page>
	<end_page>946</end_page>
	<publication_date>2009-11-02</publication_date>
	<article_title content_type="html">Multi-channel ground-penetrating radar to explore spatial variations   in thaw depth and moisture content in the active layer of a permafrost site</article_title>
	<authors>
		<author numeration="1" affiliations="1">
			<name>U. Wollschläger</name>
			<email>ute.wollschlaeger@iup.uni-heidelberg.de</email>
		</author>
		<author numeration="2" affiliations="1">
			<name>H. Gerhards</name>
		</author>
		<author numeration="3" affiliations="2">
			<name>Q. Yu</name>
		</author>
		<author numeration="4" affiliations="1">
			<name>K. Roth</name>
		</author>
	</authors>
	<affiliations>
		<affiliation numeration="1" content_type="html">Institute of Environmental Physics, Heidelberg University, 69120  Heidelberg, Germany</affiliation>
		<affiliation numeration="2" content_type="html">State Key Laboratory of Frozen Soil Engineering Cold and Arid Regions  Environmental and Engineering Research Institute, CAS, Lanzhou, China</affiliation>
	</affiliations>
	<abstract content_type="html">Multi-channel ground-penetrating radar was applied at a permafrost site on the
Tibetan Plateau to investigate the influence of surface properties and soil
texture on the late-summer thaw depth and average soil moisture content of the
active layer. Measurements were conducted on an approximately 85&amp;times;60 m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
sized area with surface and soil textural properties that ranged
from medium to coarse textured bare soil to finer textured, vegetated areas
covered with fine, wind blown sand, and it included the bed of a gravel road.
The survey allowed a clear differentiation of the various units. It showed (i) a
shallow thaw depth and low average soil moisture content below the sand-covered,
vegetated area, (ii) an intermediate thaw depth and high average soil moisture
content along the gravel road, and (iii) an intermediate to deep thaw depth and
low to intermediate average soil moisture content in the bare soil terrain. From
our measurements, we found plausible hypotheses for the permafrost processes at
this site leading to the observed late-summer thaw depth and soil moisture
conditions. The study clearly indicates the complicated interactions between
surface and subsurface state variables and processes in this environment. In
addition, the survey demonstrates the potential of multi-channel
ground-penetrating radar to efficiently map thaw depth and soil moisture content
of the active layer with high spatial resolution at scales from a few meters to
a few kilometers.</abstract>
	<references>
		<reference numeration="1" content_type="text"> Annan, A. P. and Davis, J. L.: Impulse radar sounding in permafrost, Radio Sci., 4, 383–394, 1976. </reference>
		<reference numeration="2" content_type="text"> Arcone, S. A., Lawson D. E., Delaney, A. J., and Strasser, J. C.: Ground-penetrating radar reflection profiling of groundwater and bedrock in an area of discontinuous permafrost, Geophysics, 63, 1573–1584, 1998. </reference>
		<reference numeration="3" content_type="text"> Bradford, J. H., McNamara, J. P., Bowden, W., and Gooseff, M. N.: Measuring thaw depth beneath peat-lined arctic streams using ground-penetrating radar, Hydrol. Proc., 19, 2689–2699, 2005. </reference>
		<reference numeration="4" content_type="text"> Bradford, J. H.: Measuring water content heterogeneity using multifold GPR with reflection tomography, Vadose Zone J., 7, 184–193, 2008. </reference>
		<reference numeration="5" content_type="text"> Brosten, T. R., Bradford, J. H., McNamara, J. P., Zarnetske, J. P., Gooseff, M. N., and Bowden, W.: Profiles of temporal thaw depths beneath two arctic stream types using ground-penetrating radar, Permafrost Periglac. Proc., 17, 341–355, 2006. </reference>
		<reference numeration="6" content_type="text"> Brosten, T. R., Bradford, J. H., McNamara, J. P., Gooseff, M. N., Zarnetske, J. P., Bowden, W. B., and Johnston, M. E.: Estimating 3D variation in active-layer thickness beneath arctic streams using ground-penetrating radar, J. Hydrol., 373, 479–486, 2009. </reference>
		<reference numeration="7" content_type="text"> Brown. J., Hinkel, K. M., and Nelson, F. E.: The Circumpolar Active Layer Monitoring (CALM) Program: Research designs and initial results, Polar Geogr., 24, 165–258, 2000. </reference>
		<reference numeration="8" content_type="text"> Cheng, G. and Wu, T.: Responses of permafrost to climate change and their environmental significance, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. J. Geophys. Res., 112, F02S03, doi:10.1029/2006JF000631, 2007. </reference>
		<reference numeration="9" content_type="text"> Davis, J. L. and Annan, A. P.: Ground-penetrating radar for high-resolution mapping of soil and rock stratigraphy, Geophys. Prospect., 37, 531–551, 1989. </reference>
		<reference numeration="10" content_type="text"> Duguay, C. R., Zhang, T., Leverington, D. W., and Romanovsky, V. E.: Satellite remote sensing of permafrost and seasonally frozen ground. In: Duguay, C.R. and Pietroniro, A.: Remote sensing in northern hydrology. Measuring environmental change. AGU Geophysical Monograph 163, 91–118, 2005. </reference>
		<reference numeration="11" content_type="text"> Gasse, F., Arnold, M., Fontes, J. C., Fort, M., Gibert, E., Huc, A., Li Bingyan, Li Yuanfang, Liu Qing, Mélières, F., Van Campo, E., Wang Fubao, and Zhang Qingsong: A 13.000-year climate record from western Tibet, Nature, 353, 742–745, 1991. </reference>
		<reference numeration="12" content_type="text"> Gerhards, H., Wollschläger, U., Yu, Q., Schiwek, P., Pan, X., and Roth, K.: Continuous and simultaneous measurement of reflector depth and average soil-water content with multichannel ground penetrating radar, Geophysics, 73, J15–J23, doi:10.1190/1.2943669, 2008. </reference>
		<reference numeration="13" content_type="text"> Greaves, R. J., Lesmes, D. P., Lee, J. M., and Toksöz: Velocity variations and water content estimated from multi-offset ground-penetrating radar, Geophysics, 61, 683–695, 1996. </reference>
		<reference numeration="14" content_type="text"> Hinkel, K. M., Doolittle, J. A., Bockheim, J. G., Nelson, F. E., Paetzold, R., Kimble, J. M., and Travis, R.: Detection of subsurface permafrost features with ground-penetrating radar, Barrow, Alaska, Permafrost Periglac. Process., 12, 179–190, 2001. </reference>
		<reference numeration="15" content_type="text"> Hinkel, K. M. and Nelson, F. E.: Spatial and temporal patterns of active layer thickness at Circumpolar Active Layer Monitoring (CALM) sites in northern Alaska, 1995–2000, J. Geophys. Res., 108, D2, 8168, doi:10.1029/2001JD000927, 2003. </reference>
		<reference numeration="16" content_type="text"> Hinzman, L. D., Bettez, N. D., Bolton, W. R., et al.: Evidence and implications of recent climate change in northern Alaska and other arctic regions, Clim. Change, 72, 251–298, 2005. </reference>
		<reference numeration="17" content_type="text"> Jin, H., Chang, X. L., and Wang, S. L.: Evolution of permafrost on the Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau since the end of the late Pleistocene, J. Geophys. Res., 112, F02S09, doi:10.1029/2006JF000521, 2007. </reference>
		<reference numeration="18" content_type="text"> Kaatze, U.: Complex permittivity of water as a function of frequency and temperature, J. Chem. Eng. Data, 34, 371–374, 1998. </reference>
		<reference numeration="19" content_type="text"> Kane, D. L., Hinzman, L. D., and Zarling, J. P.: Thermal response of the active layer to climatic warming in a permafrost environment, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 19, 111–122, 1998. </reference>
		<reference numeration="20" content_type="text"> Lemke, P., Ren, J., Alley, R. B., Allison, I., Carrasco, J., Flato, G., Fujii, Y., Kaser, G., Mote, P., Thomas, R. H., and Zhang, T.: Observations: Changes in snow, ice and frozen ground, in: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by: Solomon, S., Qin, D., Manning, M., Chen, Z., Marquis, M., Averyt, K. B., Tignor, M., and Miller, H. L., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, 2007. </reference>
		<reference numeration="21" content_type="text"> Liu, X. and Chen, B.: Climatic warming in the Tibetan Plateau during recent decades, Int. J. Climatol., 20, 1729–1742, 2000. </reference>
		<reference numeration="22" content_type="text"> Lunt, I. A., Hubbard, S. S., and Rubin, Y.: Soil moisture content estimation using ground-penetrating radar reflection data, J. Hydrol., 307, 254–269, 2005. </reference>
		<reference numeration="23" content_type="text"> Moorman, B. J. , Robinson, S. D., and Burgess, M. M.: Imaging periglacial conditions with ground-penetrating radar, Permafrost Periglac. Process., 14, 319–329, 2003. </reference>
		<reference numeration="24" content_type="text"> Munroe, J. S., Doolittle, J. A., Kanevskiy, M. Z., Hinkel, K. M., Nelson, F. E., Jones, B. M., Shur, Y., and Kimble, J. M.: Application of ground-penetrating radar imagery for three-dimensional visualization of near-surface structures in ice-rich permafrost, Barrow, Alaska, Permafrost Periglac. Proc., 18, 309–321, 2007. </reference>
		<reference numeration="25" content_type="text"> Neal, A.: Ground-penetrating radar and its use in sedimentology: principles, problems and progress, Earth-Sci. Rev., 66, 261–330, 2004. </reference>
		<reference numeration="26" content_type="text"> Nelson, F. E., Anisimov, O. E., and Shiklomanov, N. I.: Subsidence risk from thawing permafrost, Nature, 410, 889, 2001.  </reference>
		<reference numeration="27" content_type="text"> Roth, K., Schulin, R., Flühler, H., and Attinger, W.: Calibration of time domain reflectometry for water content measurement using a composite dielectric approach, Water Resour. Res., 26, 2267–2273, 1990. </reference>
		<reference numeration="28" content_type="text"> Schwamborn, G., Wagner, D., and Hubberten, H.-W.: The use of GPR to detect active layers in young periglacial terrain of Livingston Island, Maritime Antarctica, Near Surf. Geophys., 331–336, 2008. </reference>
		<reference numeration="29" content_type="text"> van Everdingen, R. ed.: Multi-language glossary of permafrost and related ground-ice terms. National Snow and Ice Data Center/World Data Center for Glaciology, Boulder, CO, 1998, revised May 2005, http://nsidc.org/fgdc/glossary/. </reference>
		<reference numeration="30" content_type="text"> Walker, D. A., Jia, G. J., Epstein, H. E., Raynolds, M. K., Chapin III, F. S., Copass, C., Hinzman, L. D., Knudson, J. A., Maier, H. A., Michaelson, G. J., Nelson, F., Ping, C. L., Romanovsky, V. E., and Shiklomanov, N.: Vegetaion-soil-thaw-depth relationships along a low-arctic bioclimate gradient, Alaska: Synthesis of information from the ATLAS studies, Permafrost Periglac. Proc., 14, 103–123, 2003. </reference>
		<reference numeration="31" content_type="text"> Wollschläger, U. and Roth, K.: Estimation of temporal changes of volumetric soil water content from ground-penetrating radar reflections, Subsur. Sens. Technol. Appl., 6, 207–218. </reference>
		<reference numeration="32" content_type="text"> Wright, N., Hayashi, M., and Quinton, W. L.: Spatial and temporal variations in active layer thawing and their implication on runoff generation in peat-covered permafrost terrain, Water Resour. Res., 45, W05414, doi:10.1029/2008WR006880, 2009. </reference>
		<reference numeration="33" content_type="text"> Yoshikawa, K., Leuschen, C., Ikeda, A., Harada, K., Gogineni, P., Hoekstra, P., Hinzman, L., Sawada, Y., and Matsuoka, N.: Comparison of geophysical investigations for detection of massive ground ice (pingo ice), J. Geophys. Res., 111, E0619, doi:10.1029/2005JE002573, 2006. </reference>
		<reference numeration="34" content_type="text"> Zhang, T., Barry, R. G., and Armstrong, R. L.: Applications of satellite remote sensing techniques to frozen ground studies, Pol. Geogr., 28, 163–196, 2004. </reference>
		<reference numeration="35" content_type="text"> Zhou, Y. and Guo, D.: Some features of permafrost in China, Proc. 4th Int. Conf. on Permafrost, 17–22 July 1983, Fairbanks, Alaska, Natl. Academy Press, Washington DC, USA, 1496–1501, 1983. </reference>
		<reference numeration="36" content_type="text"> Zhou, Y., Guo, D., Qiu, G., and Cheng, G.: Ceocryology in China (in Chinese), Beijing: Science Press, 165–167, 2000. </reference>
		<reference numeration="37" content_type="text"> Zhou, Z., Baoyin, Y., and Petit-Maire, N.: Paleoenvironments in China during the Last Glacial Maximum and the Holocene Optimum, Episodes, 21, 152–158, 1998. </reference>
	</references>
</article>

