The Cryosphere Discussions www.the-cryosphere-discuss.net 1994-0432 1994-0440 4 3 2010 10.5194/tcd-4-1107-2010 http://www.the-cryosphere-discuss.net/4/1107/2010/ http://www.the-cryosphere-discuss.net/4/1107/2010/tcd-4-1107-2010.html http://www.the-cryosphere-discuss.net/4/1107/2010/tcd-4-1107-2010.pdf 1107 1150 2010-07-22 Spatial and temporal variability in summer snow pack in the Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica T. Vihma timo.vihma@fmi.fi O.-P. Mattila R. Pirazzini M. M. Johansson Finnish Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503, 00101 Helsinki, Finland Department of Physics, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 64, 00014 Helsinki, Finland now at: Finnish Environmental Institute, P.O. Box 140, 00251 Helsinki, Finland Snow temperature, density, and layering were measured in four summers in the Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica. Data from a 310-km-long transect showed that the most homogeneous snow pack located in the Riiser-Larsen Ice Shelf, while horizontal gradients in snow density, temperature, and hardness were larger in the escarpment region. In the local scale, day-to-day temporal variability dominated the standard deviation of snow temperature, while the diurnal cycle was next important, and horizontal variability in the scale of 0.4 to 10 m was the smallest component. The day-to-day and total small-scale variability decreased exponentially with depth with an e-folding depth at 0.25 to 0.30 m. Snow temperature depended on the cloud cover in the uppermost 0.30 m and snow density in the uppermost 0.10 m. Both in the intra-pit and transect scales, the ratio of horizontal to temporal variability increased with depth. In the intra-pit scale the temporal variability in snow density exceeded the horizontal variability throughout the uppermost 0.50 m layer, but in the 100-km scale only in the uppermost centimetres. The horizontal standard deviation of snow density increased rapidly between the scales of 0.4 and 2 m, and much more gradually from 10¹ to 10² m. Albert,~M R. and McGilvary,~W R.: Thermal effects due to air flow and vapour transport in dry snow, J. Glaciol., 38, 273–281, 1992. Bakermans,~L. and Jamieson,~B.: Swarm: a~simple regression model to estimate near-surface snowpack warming for back-country avalanche forecasting, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 59, 133–142, 2009. Brandt,~R E. and Warren,~S G.: Temperature measurements and heat transfer in near-surface snow at the South Pole, J. Glaciol., 43, 339–351, 1997. Cheng,~B., Launiainen,~J., and Vihma,~T.: Modelling of superimposed ice formation and sub-surface melting in the Baltic Sea, Geophysica, 39, 31–50, 2003. Cheng,~B., Zhang,~Z., Vihma,~T., Johansson,~M., Bian,~L., Li,~Z., and Wu,~H.: Model experiments on snow and ice thermodynamics in the Arctic Ocean with CHINARE2003 data, J. Geophys. Res., 113, C09020, \doi10.1029/2007JC004654, 2008a. Cheng,~B., Vihma,~T., Zhang,~Z., Li,~Z., and Wu,~H.: Snow and sea ice thermodynamics in the Arctic: model validation and sensitivity study against SHEBA data, Chinese Journal of Polar Science, 19, 108–122, 2008b. Colbeck,~S.: Layered character of snow covers, Rev. Geophys., 29, 81–96, 1991. Colbeck,~S C., Akitaya,~E., Armstrong,~R., Gubler,~H., Lafeuille,~J., Lied,~K., McClung,~D., and Morris,~E.: International classification for seasonal snow on the ground, International Commision on Snow and Ice of the International Association of Scientific Hydrology, World Data Centre – Association for Glaciology, Univeristy of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 23~pp., 1990. Courville,~Z R., Albert,~M R., Fahnestock,~M A., Cathles IV,~L M., and Shuman,~C A.: Impacts of an accumulation hiatus on the physical properties of firn at a~low-accumulation polar site, J. Geophys. Res., 112, F02030, \doi10.1029/2005JF000429, 2007. Dadic,~R., Schneebeli,~M., Lehning,~M., Hutterli,~M A., and Ohmura,~A.: Impact of the microstructure of snow on its temperature: a~model validation with measurements from Summit, Greenland, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D14303, \doi10.1029/2007JD009562, 2008. Eisen,~O., Frezzotti, M., Genthon, C., et al.: Ground-based measurements of spatial and temporal variability of snow accumulation in East Antarctica, Rev. Geophys., 46, RG2001, \doi10.1029/2006RG000218, 2008. Frezzotti,~M., Gandolfi,~S., La Marca,~F., and Urbini,~S.: Snow dunes and glazed surfaces in Antarctica: new field and remote-sensing data, Ann. Glaciol., 34, 81–88, 2002a. Frezzotti,~M., Gandolfi,~S., and Urbini,~S.: Snow megadunes in Antarcitca: sedimentary structure and genesis, J. Geophys Res., 107, 4344, \doi10.1029/2001JD000673, 2002b. Frezzotti,~M., Pourchet,~M., Flora,~O., Gandolfi,~S., Gay,~M., Urbini,~S., Vincent,~C., Becagli,~S., Gragnani,~R., Proposito,~M., Severi,~M., Traversi,~R., Udisti,~R., and Fily,~M.: New estimations of precipitation and surface sublimation in East Antarctica from snow accumulation measurements, Clim. Dynam., 23, 803–813, \doi10.1007/s00382-004-0462-5, 2004. Frezzotti,~M., Urbini,~S., Proposito,~M., Scarchilli,~C., and Gandolfi,~S.: Spatial and temporal variability of surface mass balance near Talos Dome, East Antarctica, J. Geophys. Res., 112, F02032, \doi10.1029/2006JF000638, 2007. Frey,~M M., Hutterli,~M A., Chen,~G., Sjostedt,~S J., Burkhart,~J F., Friel,~D K., and Bales,~R C.: Contrasting atmospheric boundary layer chemistry of methylhydroperoxide (\chemCH_3OOH) and hydrogen peroxide (\chemH_2O_2) above polar snow, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 3261–3276, \doi10.5194/acp-9-3261-2009, 2009. Goodwin,~I D.: Snow accumulation and surface topography in the katabatic zone of Eastern Wilkes Land, Antarctica, Antarct. Sci., 2, 235–242, 1990. Granberg,~H., Cliche,~P., Mattila,~O.-P., Kanto,~E., and Leppäranta,~M.: A~snow sensor experiment in Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica, J. Glaciol., 55, 1041–1051, 2009. Granskog,~M., Vihma,~T., Pirazzini,~R., and Cheng,~B.: Superimposed ice formation and surface fluxes on sea ice during the spring melt-freeze period in the Baltic Sea, J. Glaciol., 52, 119–127, 2006. Harper,~J T. and Bradford,~J H.: Snow stratigraphy over a~uniform depositional surface: spatial variability and measurement tools, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 37, 289–298, 2003. Hogan,~A.: A~synthesis of warm air advection to the South Polar Plateau, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 14009–14020, 1997. Jordan,~R E., O'Brian,~H., and Albert,~M R.: Snow as a~thermal background: preliminary results from the 1987 field test, in: Proc., Snow Symposium VII. US Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, NH, Special Report 89-7, 5–24, 1989. Jordan,~R E., Albert,~M R., and Brun,~E.: Physical processes within the snow cover and their parameterization, in: Snow and Climate. Physical Processes, Surface Energy Exchange and Modeling, edited by: Armstrong,~R E. and Brun,~E., Cambridge University Press, 222~pp., 2008. Kärkäs,~E.: Meteorological conditions of the Basen nunatak in western Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica, during the years 1989–2001, Geophysica, 40, 39–52, 2004. Kärkäs,~E., Granberg,~H., Kanto,~K., Rasmus,~K., Lavoie,~C., and Leppäranta,~M.: Physical properties of the seasonal snow cover in Dronning Maud Land, East Antarctica, Ann. Glaciol., 34, 89–94, 2002. Kärkäs,~E., Martma,~T., and Sonninen,~E.: Physical properties and stratigraphy of surface snow in western Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica, Polar Res., 24, 55–67, 2005. King.,~J C. and Turner,~J.: Antarctic Meteorology and Climatology, University Press Cambridge, Cambridge, 409~pp., 1997. Kronholm,~K., Schneebeli,~M., and Schweizer,~J.: Spatial variability of micropenetration resistance in snow layers on a~small slope, Ann. Glaciol., 38, 202–208, 2004. Launiainen,~J., Uotila,~J., Vihma,~T., Taalas,~P., Karlsson,~K., and Siivola,~J.: Meteorological observations at the Aboa base 1989–1994, Antarctic Reports of Finland, No~5, Ministry of Trade and Industry, Helsinki, 27~pp., 1995. Lenaerts,~J T M., van den Broeke,~M R., Déry,~S J., König-Langlo,~G., Ettema,~J., and Munneke,~P K.: Modelling snowdrift sublimation on an Antarctic ice shelf, The Cryosphere, 4, 179–190, \doi10.5194/tc-4-179-2010, 2010. Mäkynen,~M., Cheng,~B., Similä,~M., Vihma,~T., and Hallikainen,~M.: Comparisons between SAR backscattering coefficient and results of a~thermodynamic snow/ice model for the Baltic Sea land-fast sea ice, IEEE T. Geosci. Remote, 45, 1131–1141, 2007. Meløysund,~V., Leira,~B., Høiseth,~K V., and Lisø,~K R.: Predicting snow density using meteorological data, Meteorol. Appl., 14, 413–423, \doi10.1002/met.40, 2007. Nicolaus,~M., Haas,~C., and Willmes,~S.: Evolution of first-year and second-year snow properties on sea ice in the Weddell Sea during spring-summer transition, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D17109, \doi10.1029/2008JD011227, 2009. Pirazzini,~R.: Surface albedo measurements over Antarctic sites in summer, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D20118, \doi10.1029/2004JD004617, 2004. Reijmer,~C H. and Oerlemans,~J.: Temporal and spatial variability of the surface energy balance in Dronning Maud Land, East Antarctica, J. Geophys. Res., 107, 4759, doi:10.1029/2000JD000110, 2002. Reijmer~C H., van den Broeke,~M R., and Scheele,~M P.: Air parcel trajectories and snowfall related in five deep drilling locations in Antarctica based on the ERA-15 dataset, J. Climate, 15, 1957–1968, 2002. Reijmer,~C H. and van den Broeke,~M R.: Temporal and spatial variability of the surface mass balance in Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica, as derived from automatic weather stations, J. Glaciol., 49, 512–520, 2003. Renfrew,~I A.: The dynamics of idealized katabatic flow over a~moderate slope and ice shelf, Q J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 130, 1023–1045, 2004. Richardson,~C., Aarholt,~E., Hamran,~S E., Holmlund,~P., and Isaksson,~E.: Spatial distribution of snow in western Dronning Maud Land, East Antarctica, mapped by a~ground-based snow radar, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 20343–20353, 1997. Richardson-Näslund,~C.: Spatial characteristics of snow accumulation in Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica, Global Planet. Change, 42, 31–43, 2004. Shupe,~M D. and Intrieri,~J M.: Cloud radiative forcing of the Arctic surface: the influence of cloud properties, surface albedo, and solar zenith angle, J. Climate, 17, 616–628, 2004. Sihvola,~A. and Tiuri,~M.: Snow fork for field determination of density and wetness profiles of a~snow pack, IEEE T. Geosci. Remote., GE-24, 717–721, 1986. Simmonds,~I., Keay,~K., and Lim,~E.-P.: Synoptic activity in the seas around Antarctica, Mon. Weather Rev., 131, 272–288, 2003. Sturm,~M. and Benson,~C.: Scales of spatial heterogeneity for perennial and seasonal snow layers, Ann. Glaciol., 38, 253–260, 2004. Sturm,~M. and Johnson,~J B.: Thermal conductivity measurements on depth hoar, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 2129–2139, 1992. Tietäväinen,~H. and Vihma,~T.: Atmospheric moisture budget over Antarctica and Southern Ocean on the basis of ERA-40 reanalysis, Int. J. Climatol., 28, 1977–1995, \doi10.1002/joc.1684, 2008. Van den Broeke,~M., Reijmer,~C., van As,~D., and Boot,~W.: Daily cycle of the surface energy balance in Antarctica and the influence of clouds, Int. J. Climatol., 26, 1587–1605, 2006. Van den Broeke,~M., Reijmer,~C., and van de Wal,~R.: Surface radiation balance in Antarctica as measured with automatic weather stations, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D09103, \doi10.1029/2003JD004394, 2004. Van den Broeke,~M. and van Lipzig,~N P M.: Factors controlling the near-surface wind field in Antarctica, Mon. Weather Rev., 131, 733–743, 2003. Van de Broeke,~M R., Winther,~J.-G., Isaksson,~E., Pinglot,~J F., Karlöf,~L., Eiken,~T., and Conrads,~L.: Climate variables along a~traverse line in Dronning Maud Land, East Antarctica, J. Glaciol., 45, 295–302, 1999. Van Lipzig,~N P M., van Meijgaard,~E., and Oerlemans,~J.: Evaluation of a~regional atmospheric model using measurements of surface heat exchange processes from a~site in Antarctica, Mon. Weather Rev., 127, 1994–2011, 1999. Vihma,~T., Johansson,~M M., and Launiainen,~J.: Radiative and turbulent surface heat fluxes over sea ice in the western Weddell Sea in early summer, J. Geophys. Res., 114, C04019, \doi10.1029/2008JC004995, 2009. Watanabe,~O.: Stratigraphic studies of the snow cover in Mizuho Plateau, Memoirs of National Institute of Polar Research, 7, 44–62, 1978.